Effects of the Near-Space Environment on Flight Vehicles: Progress and Perspectives
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摘要: 临近空间作为航空与航天的过渡区域, 具有大气稀薄、温度分层显著、风场强扰动等极端环境特征, 对飞行器气动、动力、控制及材料结构形成复杂耦合效应. 本文从“环境−飞行器耦合效应”的总体视角出发, 系统梳理了临近空间大气平均特性与时空演化规律并分析了环境参数向临近空间飞行器各子系统的传递链路及飞行包线约束. 在气动方面, 探讨了稀薄气体效应、风场扰动、气动加热、热化学非平衡以及边界层转捩与湍流模拟的关键问题; 在动力系统方面, 综述了亚燃/超燃冲压发动机、组合式发动机、爆震发动机以及电推进技术的环境适应性与面临的挑战; 在动力学与控制方面, 分析了跨域宽速域制导策略、强扰动下鲁棒控制方法以及智能控制与自主决策的发展现状与未来趋势; 在材料与结构方面, 阐述了极端热−力-声多场耦合下的热防护系统、主动热管理技术、噪声与振动抑制以及结构健康监测与数字孪生应用的研究进展和未来展望. 最后, 本文在上述不同领域提出了展望与若干研究建议. 与已有聚焦单一学科或特定效应的综述不同, 本文为临近空间飞行器总体及各系统研究提供了一套可参照的分析框架和关键技术方向, 有助于推动各领域从经验性设计向适应环境不确定性的精细化、一体化设计演进, 为未来临近空间飞行器的发展提供支撑.Abstract: As a transitional region between aeronautics and astronautics, near space is characterized by extreme environmental conditions, including rarefied atmosphere, pronounced thermal stratification, and strong wind-field disturbances. These conditions induce complex coupled effects on the aerodynamics, propulsion, control, materials, and structures of flight vehicles. From the overarching perspective of environment–vehicle coupling effects, this paper systematically reviews the mean atmospheric characteristics and spatiotemporal evolution of the near-space environment, and analyzes the transmission pathways through which environmental parameters affect the subsystems of near-space flight vehicles, as well as the resulting constraints on the flight envelope. In terms of aerodynamics, key issues are discussed, including rarefied-gas effects, wind-field disturbances, aerodynamic heating, thermochemical nonequilibrium, boundary-layer transition, and turbulence simulation. For propulsion systems, this paper reviews the environmental adaptability and major challenges associated with ramjet and scramjet engines, combined-cycle engines, detonation engines, and electric propulsion technologies. With respect to flight dynamics and control, the current state and future trends are analyzed for cross-domain and wide-speed-range guidance strategies, robust control methods under strong disturbances, and intelligent control and autonomous decision-making. Regarding materials and structures, the paper summarizes research progress and future prospects in thermal protection systems, active thermal management, noise and vibration suppression, structural health monitoring, and digital-twin applications under extreme coupled thermal–mechanical–acoustic multi-field environments. Finally, perspectives and several research recommendations are proposed across the above areas, aiming to provide support for the future development of near-space flight vehicles.
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图 1 大气飞行环境 (沈海军 等 2012)
图 3 X-43A在马赫7试验工况下的数值模拟结果 (来源: 美国航空航天局 (National Aeronautics and Space Administration, NASA))
图 5 不同时空条件下大气温度垂直廓线图 (a) 7月不同纬度大气温度垂直廓线; (b) 极地 (80°N) 不同季节大气温度垂直廓线; (c) 赤道 (0°) 不同季节大气温度垂直廓线; (d) 赤道 (0°) 大气温度垂直廓线昼夜变化 (根据NRLMSISE-00大气模型绘制)
图 6 基于 HWM14 模型的东经116°临近空间大气风速绝对值时空分布特性 (a) 1月 (冬季) 不同纬度的风速差异; (b) 极地地区 (80°N) 风速的季节性演化; (c) 赤道地区 (0°) 风速的季节性演化
图 8 月球返回舱第一次再入阶段不同高度的对应电磁波频率, 达到或超过2.3 GHz的地面通信雷达频率, 即红色部分出现时会造成通信中断 (单位: Hz)(Fang et al. 2020)
图 9 高超声速气动加热与烧蚀材料表面耦合响应示意图 (Mansour et al. 2024)
图 10 影响转捩因素示意图 (陈坚强 等 2017)
图 11 (a) 超燃冲压发动机示意图 (Liu C et al. 2025), (b) 双模态超燃冲压发动机结构示意图 (Urzay 2018)
图 13 旋转爆震波结构及喷注方式示意图 (Raman et al. 2023)
图 14 RDE红外图像以及实验后RDE壁面烧蚀现象 (Taehyun 2019)
图 18 飞翼布局飞行器刚−弹耦合颤振抑制的智能控制策略 (Zou Q et al. 2026)
图 19 超高精度的光固化3D打印技术构建出结合了 Schoen Gyroid 与 Schwarz Diamond 拓扑的 SiC 陶瓷架构, 材料微结构呈现了梯度孔隙率分布 (Gradient Porosity) 及“棋盘式”(Checkerboard) 层级设计 (Tang et al. 2025)
图 20 高超声速飞行器主动热管理与冷却技术及其原理: (a) 再生冷却 (Xu Q et al. 2021b); (b) 薄膜冷却 (向树红 等 2020); (c) 发汗冷却 (Huang et al. 2015)
表 1 典型临近空间低速飞行器及其主要参数 (肖振 等 2024)
类型 名称 国家 飞行高度/km 飞行时间 载荷量/kg 备注 高空气球 LDB气球 美国 30 21天 900 ULDB气球 美国 33.5 100天 1600 球膜材料为低密度聚乙烯 Loon气球 美国 20 100天 15 球膜材料为聚酯 (76 μm) JAXA气球 日本 53.7 2.7 h 3.2 球膜材料为聚乙烯 (2.8 μm) 平流层飞艇 HiSentinel-80 美国 20.16 8 h (试验) 39 长61 m, 直径14 m HALE-D 美国 9.75 2.6 h (试验) 22 长73 m, 直径21 m ISIS 美国 19 ~ 21 90天 长300 m, 直径50 m 攀登者 美国 30 数月 45 长53 m, 宽30 m 金雕 俄罗斯 20 ~ 23 4个月 1200 长150 ~ 250 m, 直径50 m 太阳能 以色列 21 3年 1800 长190 m, 宽60 m 高空长航时
无人机探路者 + 美国 24.4 14.8 h 67.5 翼展37 m 太阳神 美国 29.5 24 h 329 翼展75.3 m “西风”S 英国 22.5 602 h 5 翼展25 m SolarEagle方案 美国 20 5年 翼展122 m “全球观察者”2 美国 19.5 (设计) 5 ~ 7天 (设计) 454 翼展79 m “全球鹰”RQ-4A 美国 19.8 42 h 907.2 翼展35.4 m 
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表 2 不同飞行器工况、特征以及典型环境影响机理表
飞行器类别 典型特征 工况 典型影响机理 低速飞行器 大展弦比
(无人机)
大体积 (飞艇)低速 (Re=105 ~ 106)
高空 (20-30 km)·风扰动−低速飞行气动力分布变化大−飞行器失稳 (柳兆伟 2018)
·低温/压差环境−囊体变形/气体渗漏
(崔尔杰 2009)运载火箭 多级分离
钝体头部
入轨飞行跨速域(Ma=0 ~ 10) ·环境压力/密度变化−发动机推力偏差及气动阻力偏差−飞行轨迹/推进剂余量偏差
(耿光有和李东 2015)助推滑翔再入
飞行器弹道/滑翔轨迹
升力体
机动变轨滑翔宽速域 (Ma=5 ~ 20)
跨空域 (0 ~ 100 km)·密度变化−气动力变化−姿态角变化−偏离预定轨迹 (程旋 等 2018)
·风场变化−边界层转捩−气动环境失稳−飞行失控 (Kimmel et al. 2015)吸气式高超声速
巡航飞行器吸气式发动机 窄速域 (Ma5 ~ 10)
跨空域 (0 ~ 30 km)·气压/风场变化−进气道激波波系破坏−进气量不足−发动机熄火 (邓帆 等 2018) 可重复使用
运载器大升阻比外形
能够水平着陆跨大气层
跨速域·高焓流动−高驻点热流密度−表面材料烧蚀−结构损伤 (Peters et al. 2024)
·高焓流动−气体电离−等离子体鞘套−通信黑障
(程旋 等 2018)
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表 3 主要湍流模拟方法的差距与目标 (陈坚强 等 2023)
关键技术 差距与挑战 2035年目标 DNS 参数范围、网格分辨率、几何外形的复杂程度与
多物理场计算能力Re达107, Ma可至高超; 网格百亿; 可对飞行器的部件开展精细模拟; 可考虑多场耦合 LES 可压缩效应的建模问题、转捩/湍流自适应大涡模拟方法的发展以及尺度自适应大涡模拟方法的发展 Re达107, Ma 可至高超; 可模拟工程复杂
外形; 可考虑多场耦合RANS 雷诺应力模式的数值鲁棒性不够, 复杂外形应用不够;
基于数据驱动的湍流模式, 还只能用于相近流动预测,
当流动类型差距较大时, 效果不佳Ma可至高超; 可模拟工程复杂外形; 可较准确预测分离; 可实现分钟级快速分析 RANS-LES 灰区问题尚未完全解决; RANS-LES 的无缝链接,
自动转换; 多学科耦合Ma可至高超; 可模拟工程复杂外形;
可考虑多场耦合
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表 4 结构健康监测技术分类 (刘青旭 等 2024)
物理原理 技术方法 主要传感器类型 适用范围 监测方式 原理简介 连续介
质力学基于应变的方法 光纤传感器 中程 被动 通过测量结构在载荷作用下产生的应变变化, 反映结构内部受力与损伤状态 振动法 加速度计 全局/局部 被动/主动 利用结构振动特性 (频率、模态等) 的变化识别刚度退化或损伤 弹性波
传播导波技术 压电材料 (PZT,
锆钛酸铅)中程 主动 激励并接收在结构中传播的导波信号, 通过波形变化检测损伤 声发射 (AE, Acoustic Emission) 压电传感器
(PZT、AE探头)中程 被动 监测材料内部裂纹扩展等释放的
瞬态弹性波信号相控阵技术 压电阵列
(PZT阵列)中程 被动/主动 通过多传感器阵列控制波束方向,
实现损伤定位与成像超声检测 PZT/激光超声 局部 主动 利用高频超声波在材料中的反射与
透射特性检测缺陷电磁学 机电阻抗法 (EMI) 压电传感器 (PZT) 局部 主动 利用结构机械阻抗变化引起的电阻
抗变化识别损伤电阻抗层析成像 碳纳米管 (CNT) 掺杂材料 局部 主动 通过导电材料电阻分布变化重建
结构内部损伤分布涡流检测 涡流探头 局部 主动 基于电磁感应原理, 通过涡流变化检测导电材料表面或近表面缺陷 流体力学 比较真空监测 (CVM) 带微通道的
贴片传感器局部 被动 通过监测密封微通道内压力变化
判断裂纹扩展或泄漏
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